Nanomaterial-enabled optical and electrochemical biosensors for detection of plant- and animal-based proteins in modern food systems: Recent trends and future prospects

초록

Food protein allergens pose a persistent public health risk, necessitating analytical tools that combine sensitivity, matrix tolerance, and flexibility across complex food matrices. Though immunosorbent assay and mass spectrometry methods deliver regulatory-grade sensitivity but are constrained by high instrumentation costs, prolonged assay turnaround, and limited throughput screening. This review systematically analyzes miscellaneous biosensors for plant- (gluten/gliadin, Ara h 1, beta-CG, Ses i 1/2, Jug r 1, and Cor a9) and animal-based (casein, ovalbumin, tropomyosin, parvalbumin, and gelatin) protein sensing. Furthermore, critically examines how gold NPs (AuNPs), carbon nanomaterials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), quantum dots (QDs), and enzymemimicking nanozymes enhance transduction across colorimetric, fluorescent, EC, electrochemiluminescent (ECL), and photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensors. The reported limit of detection (LOD) values was lied approximately in the range of 1.0 ag mL- 1-10.15 mu g mL- 1 for plant- and animal-based proteins (0.2 fg mL- 1-0.6 mu g mL- 1). Both EC and ECL aptasensors achieving ultra level (sub-ng mL- 1) sensitivity by more than four orders of magnitude as compared to the other sensors. This review is unique in its structured cross-platform comparison of cost, operational stability, anti-interference capacity, industrialization readiness, standardization and validation requirements, and nanomaterial lifecycle analysis. Finally, electrochemical transduction and CRISPR-Cas12a amplification reduce sensor surface fouling and matrix sensitivity. Future approaches rely on smartphone-integrated multiplexing platforms and green synthesis pathways that replace hazardous precursors without compromising sensitivity. By summarizing key limitations and future perspectives, this review contributes a roadmap for developing the next-generation analytical sensors for food allergen sensing.

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