Integrated supercapacitors for future energy technologies: A comprehensive review

초록

Integrated supercapacitors (ISCs) have emerged as a multifunctional energy storage technology that combines high power density, mechanical adaptability, and system-level integration. Unlike conventional energy storage systems, ISCs enable direct integration of energy-storage functionalities into devices, substrates, and load-bearing structures, offering noteworthy system-level advantages. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the current state of ISCs at the material, device architecture, fabrication, and system-level integration. The performance metrics of key material systems, including carbon-based materials, MXenes, conductive polymers, and structural composites, are critically evaluated. This review also explores advanced manufacturing technologies such as additive manufacturing, layer-by-layer integration, and textile-based integration, highlighting their superior scalability and industrial feasibility. Compared with Li-ion batteries (150-300 Wh kg(- 1)), ISCs typically deliver 10-30 Wh kg(- 1) but offer significantly higher power density with ultra-long-life stability of >10(5) (100,000) cycles. Accordingly, ISCs are increasingly regarded as complementary energy-storage components in hybrid energy architectures rather than direct battery replacements. Key challenges, including limited energy density, interfacial instability, and scalability are thoroughly explored. Future research directions are recommended in hybrid energy systems, multi-material additive manufacturing, operando characterizations, predictive reliability assessment, design-for-repair, repurpose, and recycle strategies. The review highlights the potential of ISCs for transportation, grid-edge systems, wearables, robotics, and distributed Internet of Things (IoT) devices. The novelty of this review lies in its unified perspective linking materials science, manufacturing strategies, reliability, and application-driven system design to accelerate practical development and commercialization of next-generation multifunctional ISC technologies.

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